Global Citizenship
Intercultural
Communication

 
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00Introduction

Welcome to the Intercultural Communication module.

It focuses on how identity shapes the way we interact with others through both verbal and non-verbal communication.

In this module you will more specifically learn how various levels of identity are formed and acquired, and how they affect the ways we perceive others and share information with them. You will engage in case studies that will allow you to understand the threats inherent to intercultural communication, and you will examine some of the solutions for better intercultural interactions and how to promote them.

The module features self-reflection and references sections at the end, to help you go further, learn more about yourself, and take action to foster positive interaction with people from other cultures.

01Cultural Identity

One of the most important levels of identity is cultural identity, which is based on culture. The following video introduces its formation and its impact.

02Level of Identity

Level of Identity

The previous video introduced the construction and sharing of a common culture within one group, but of course all individuals belong to more than one group at a time throughout their lives.

The construction of one’s identity and frame of reference therefore occurs at various levels. Here are the most fundamental ones:

  • icon Personal
  • icon Local
  • icon National
  • icon Global

For each level, tap or click on the key aspects that shape identity. The correct ones will appear in green, the ones that belong to other levels or are incorrect will appear in red.

Exercise

Key Point

As you can see, some aspects that shape identity can be found at more than one level. This is one of the ways through which the personal, local, national, and global can be connected. Through these connections, each individual feels a level of connectedness, which is the feeling of being connected to culture, with various groups and communities at the same time.

Identity and Identities

Read the following text by Amartya Sen and then answer the questions. Each correct answer includes an explanation.

“The same person can be, without any contradiction, an American citizen, of Caribbean origin, with African ancestry, a Christian, a liberal, a woman, a vegetarian, a long-distance runner, a historian, a schoolteacher, a novelist, a feminist, a heterosexual, a believer in gay and lesbian rights, a theater lover, an environmental activist, a tennis fan, a jazz musician, and someone who is deeply committed to the view that there are intelligent beings in outer space with whom it is extremely urgent to talk (preferably in English). Each of these collectivities, to all of which this person simultaneously belongs, gives her a particular identity. None of them can be taken to be the person’s only identity or singular membership category. Given our inescapably plural identities, we have to decide on the relative importance of our different associations and affiliations in any particular context.”

Sen, A. (2006). Identity and violence, the illusion of destiny. Norton & Company.

According to Sen, can anyone's identity be fully defined by their belonging to a single group?
Yes
No
Please make your selection.

Correct. Sen rejects the idea that people can be categorised according to any one specific group, because they always belong to more than one at various levels (local, national, religious, political, and so on).

If you were to meet the person Sen describes, could you tell what her frame of reference is just by looking at her?
Yes
No
Please make your selection.

Correct. Some aspects of culture may be noticeable on the surface (religious symbols or clothing, for instance), but the norms and values that shape people’s frames of reference are mostly invisible. Hence the iceberg image that Edward Hall uses to describe culture, with 10% that you can see, and 90% that is hidden under the surface.

https://www.spps.org/cms/lib/MN01910242/Centricity/Domain/125/iceberg_model_3.pdf

Sen describes an American citizen of Caribbean and African origins. Do you think that all Americans of Caribbean and African origins have the same frame of reference as her?
Yes
No
Please make your selection.

Correct. Based on one’s personality and preferences, one may choose some of one’s local and national values and beliefs and reject others, creating a complex identity that affects how one behaves and communicates in unique ways, even within the same local or national cultures.

To find out more about Sen’s Identity and violence, here is a review:
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19472490903387282

Key Words

With the previous points in mind, match each of the following definitions to the correct word.

What is the word for something that is accepted as true without any proof?
Prejudice
Stereotype
Assumption
Please make your selection.
What is the word for a negative judgement that is formed before any experience?
Prejudice
Stereotype
Assumption
Please make your selection.
What is the word for an oversimplified representation of a member of a group based on one supposed characteristic of that group?
Prejudice
Stereotype
Assumption
Please make your selection.

The multiple levels of identity presented above, as well as the diversity in cultural norms, lead to major differences in frames of reference across the world, which inevitably affects the way individuals and groups interact with each other. So let’s now take a closer look at differences in communication styles.

03Communication Styles

Communication Styles Video

04Intercultural Communication Case Studies

Let's now apply the concepts and theories to concrete situations and consider them from different cultural points of view, starting with interpersonal and intergroup misunderstandings.

Everyone in each scenario sees the situation from the point of view of their home culture only, which creates a problem. Your job is to find out what each person is thinking about the situation and why.

Case 1 — 'DIY'

An international student from China is having difficulties with her course reading at a British university. She asks the British professor for help, but the professor politely refuses and tells the student to work it out by herself.

Tap 'Reframe' to change point of view and reveal possible interpretations of the situation, then tap the one you think is correct for each point of view. You will get instant feedback for each choice.

Reframe
This professor is not doing his job very well. This professor is really helping me by making me do it by myself. This university does not really care about international students.
Yes, this is the likeliest interpretation. China has a teacher-focused culture in which students expect teachers to tell them what to do. Very unlikely, as the student would not have asked for help in the first place as she had known it was up to her to organise her course reading. Possible, but less likely, given that international students are part of the university’s recruitment in the first place.
British Professor Point of View
This student does not like the course. This student needs to learn to be autonomous. This student is lazy.
Unlikely, given that the student is asking for help, which shows a degree of interest. Yes, this is the likeliest interpretation. Britain has a student-focused culture in which students are expected to be proactive and to function with a high degree of autonomy. Possible, since the student is asking the professor to do what the student should do, but unlikely, given that the student is actively asking for help.

Case 2 — 'Sit where you like.'

A team of American businessmen has invited their Chinese clients to a restaurant before signing a very important contract. The Chinese boss is greeted by a junior member of the American team and is told to sit wherever he wants.

Tap 'Reframe' to change point of view and reveal possible interpretations of the situation, then tap the one you think is correct for each point of view. You will get instant feedback for each choice.

Reframe
Less formal is normal. I don’t really care about these guests. I don’t really know what to do in such a situation.
Yes, the is the likeliest interpretation. In American culture, the boss and the team members are considered to be closer, so there is less formal hierarchy in interactions and events like this. Possible, but not likely given that the contract is a very important one. Possible, but not likely given the important situation.
Chinese Boss Point of View
I don’t know where I should sit. The Americans are insulting me. I feel honoured.
This is unlikely. As the boss and the guest, the Chinese team leader knows he should be given the place of honour. Yes, this is the likeliest interpretation. In Chinese culture, hierarchy is very important. Not giving the boss the place of honour is therefore seen as an insult and a loss of face, especially after being welcomed by a junior member of the team and not by the American team leader. Not at all. Quite the opposite, actually.

Adapted from Adapted from Commisceo Global blog entry

Case 3 — 'Debate.'

At a university in England a British teacher is leading an elective seminar with British students and one Indian student. For this session, the students have to share and debate opinions, which the British students do, but the Indian student keeps quiet.

Tap 'Reframe' to change point of view and reveal possible interpretations of the situation, then tap the one you think is correct for each point of view. You will get instant feedback for each choice.

Reframe
I am not interested at all. I don’t understand what they are saying at all. I am being polite by listening and not contradicting anyone.
Unlikely, given that the seminar is elective, which means that the students choose to attend it. Possible, but less likely, given that to be selected as an international student a certain level of English mastery is required. Yes, this is the likeliest interpretation. Indian culture is more group-focused, which means that debate and disagreement tend to be discouraged, in favour of group harmony.
British Teacher Point of View
This student is very passive and will get a low grade. This student is very polite. This student is not interested.
Yes, this is the likeliest interpretation. From the British point of view, sharing and debating opinions is encouraged, so not participating in the activity would be perceived as passive, which would lead to a lower grade. Unlikely, given that in this context active participation is the right thing to do. Possible, but unlikely, given the elective nature of the seminar.

Adapted from Alleviating cross-cultural challenges of Indian subcontinent students

Case 4 — 'A missed deadline.'

A junior Italian designer is doing an internship in Korea. One day this intern misses an important deadline and is sent to the office of the manager, an older Korean designer. While the manager explains the negative consequences of this missed deadline, the intern keeps looking straight into the manager’s eyes.

Tap 'Reframe' to change point of view and reveal possible interpretations of the situation, then tap the one you think is correct for each point of view. You will get instant feedback for each choice.

Reframe
I am paying attention. I don’t care about this. I am being respectful.
Very likely, as strong eye contact is usually seen as a way to show interest and be involved in a conversation in high-eye-contact cultures like Italian culture. There is another possibility. Very unlikely. A lack of eye contact would mean lack of interest in high-eye-contact cultures like Italian culture, not strong eye contact. Very likely. High-eye-contact cultures like Italian culture consider strong eye contact as a sign of respect during conversation. There is another possibility.
Korean Manager Point of View
This intern is taking this seriously. This intern is challenging my authority. This intern is being very impolite.
Not likely at all, given that from the Korean point of view the intern should be looking down in this situation. Yes, very likely. Korea is a low-eye-contact culture in which strong eye contact can be perceived as aggression or lack of respect, especially with an elder. There is another possibility. Yes, very likely. In low-eye-contact cultures like Korea, strong eye contact is seen as rude.

Case 5 — 'Silence in the lab.'

A postdoctoral Chinese researcher with good English skills is working on a new project with Australian postdocs at the University of Sydney. When they ask to brainstorm ideas for an experiment, the Chinese researcher stays quiet for most of the discussion.

Tap 'Reframe' to change point of view and reveal possible interpretations of the situation, then tap the one you think is correct for each point of view. You will get instant feedback for each choice.

Reframe
The Chinese postdoc has nothing to contribute. The Chinese postdoc is being very polite. The Chinese postdoc doesn’t care about the project.
Very likely, as silence can be seen as a lack of ideas in most mid- to low-context cultures. There is another likely possibility. Very unlikely. Silence is not seen as a sign of politeness in most situations in most Western cultures. Very likely, as silence can be seen as a lack of interest in most mid- to low-context cultures. There is another likely possibility.
Chinese Postdoc's Point of View
I don’t understand this project at all. I’m afraid to speak in English. I am being thoughtful.
Very unlikely, given the postdoctoral level of the Chinese researcher. Very unlikely, given the Chinese researcher’s good English skills. Very likely, as silence is usually seen as a sign that one is taking time to think carefully in most high-context cultures.

Case 6 — 'Specifications.'

A Dutch engineering company signs a contract with a Chinese customer to provide a piece of technical equipment that will be sent to China. When the Dutch team asks the Chinese customer for the detailed specifications of the equipment, the customer’s team answers that it cannot be done.

Tap 'Reframe' to change point of view and reveal possible interpretations of the situation, then tap the one you think is correct for each point of view. You will get instant feedback for each choice.

Reframe
The Chinese customer is incompetent. The Chinese team doesn’t like us personally. We are being rude by being too direct.
Very likely, as detailed instructions are given a lot of importance in low-context work cultures such as the Netherlands, so any competent professional should be able to provide them. Very unlikely, as personal relationships are secondary in low-context work cultures such as the Netherlands. Not likely at all, given that low-context work cultures such as the Netherlands see direct and clear communication as a positive.
Chinese Customer's Point of View
The Dutch team is incompetent. The Dutch team wants to humiliate us. The Dutch really know what they are doing.
Yes, very likely. From the high-context Chinese point of view, the specifications should be obvious to the team making the equipment, so there is no need to give them. The request is therefore seen as a sign that the Dutch don’t know what they are doing. Not at all. Actually, the Dutch team’s request reflects poorly on the Dutch team itself according to the high-context Chinese point of view, not on the Chinese team. Not at all. Quite the opposite.

Adapted from Università della Svizzera italiana

Case 7 — 'I quit.'

A Japanese programmer has been hired by a tech company in California and moves there from Japan to take the job. The American manager thinks that all is going well, but one day the Japanese programmer just quits. When the manager asks why, the programmer replies that his work environment is too noisy and dirty. The American manager replies: ‘You should have said something before!’

Tap 'Reframe' to change point of view and reveal possible interpretations of the situation, then tap the one you think is correct for each point of view. You will get instant feedback for each choice.

Reframe
I don’t understand the problem. There is a problem only if you say so. The programmer doesn’t like me personally.
Not likely. When the Japanese programmer explains the problem directly, it becomes clear. Yes, this is the likeliest interpretation. The American manager is from a low-context culture, which mainly considers direct communication. Not likely at all, given that in low-context work cultures such as the United States people say what they mean, not something else indirectly.
Japanese Programmer's Point of View
No need to speak to communicate issues. All Americans are loud and noisy. I have bad communication skills.
Yes, this is the likeliest interpretation. In high-context cultures like Japan, signs and clues are enough to suggest there is a problem. Possible, but unlikely. Someone believing this stereotype would probably not have taken the job in the first place. Possible, but not likely, given that from a high-context Japanese point of view, direct expression is not the norm.

In Other Words

As the cases above reveal, if you reframe an intercultural situation, that is to say if you look at it from a different perspective (and not from the view of your home country only), no one is right or wrong. Each person or group simply has different assumptions, based on norms and values that lead them to expect others to behave and communicate in certain ways.

These assumptions are often the cause of misunderstandings, or worse. This can ultimately lead to much more serious and tragic situations, including discrimination, hate speech, failures in communication among groups and communities, as well as various forms of conflict.

These include complex inter-community conflicts in many parts of the world, as well as broader conflicts, as the following case illustrates.

Case 8 — 'Egyptian-Israeli conflict.'

Unfortunately, history provides many examples of conflicts in which cultural norms and values played a major part. One of the best-documented ones relates to the 1970s Egyptian-Israeli conflict.

Here is the case and its analysis, as an illustration:

Throughout the 1970s there were attacks by Egyptian terrorists against Israel. Israeli authorities decided to respond to each attack with a much bigger military attack against Egypt. Then Egyptian authorities supported more attacks against Israel every time.

Based on Raymond Cohen’s study (Hipel, 2009), this is what cultural analysis revealed about this conflict. Tap or click on ‘reframe’ to change points of view.

Reframe
The bigger we make the punishment, the less the Egyptian terrorists will want to commit the crime. This should stop or at least decrease the number of attacks against us.
Egyptian Point of View
In Egyptian culture, vengeance or punishment must be proportionate to the crime. The bigger the punishment for a smaller crime, the more shame and dishonour. The Israelis are humiliating us with their big attacks after our small attacks, so we need to get our honour back with more attacks.

Ethnorelativism and ethnocentrism

One of these words refers to an attitude that creates intercultural problems. The other refers to an attitude that can be a solution to intercultural problems. Which is which? Tap your answer and an explanation will appear.

Ethnorelativism
Problem
Solution
Please make your selection.
Ethnorelativism is an attitude based on the knowledge that no culture is superior to any other. All cultures are simply different, not right or wrong. This is part of the solution to intercultural issues.
Ethnocentrism
Problem
Solution
Please make your selection.
Ethnocentrism is an attitude based on the use of one’s frame of reference to interact with and evaluate other cultures, thinking that one’s norms are right and others’ are wrong or irrelevant. This often causes intercultural issues and is part of the problem.

05Solutions and Advocacy

Fortunately, many projects aim at improving dialogue and understanding across cultures in the world today. These projects are often part of advocacy campaigns, which means that they are designed to show public support for a cause, to convince others about its importance, and to lead to positive change.

Here are several examples of intercultural dialogue solutions and advocacy. Watch, read, and answer the questions to find out more.

Story Circles

Story Circles Video
Match each of these qualities to its definition.
1 Open-Mindedness The abilities relating to interacting across cultures.
2 Listening The ability to consider new or different ideas and ways.
3 Empathy The ability to really pay attention to what others say.
4 Intercultural Competencies The ability to understand and share others' feelings.
Please match the right to the left.
Storytelling is an innovative way to connect with others.
True
False
Please make your selection.
Storytelling has been used for centuries to help people connect with each other.
Story circles help participants connect with each other at a deep level and to have a meaningful experience, despite their differences.
True
False
Please make your selection.
Story circles allow for a profound and meaningful experience across cultures.
Story circles help participants realise that we all share a common humanity despite our differences.
True
False
Please make your selection.
Story circles help people find common humanity beyond differences.

Rewarding Intercultural Dialogue Initiatives

This video highlights projects led by students and communities to foster intercultural dialogue as part of the Intercultural Innovation Awards.

It is also a good example of advocacy. Let’s see why.

As a form of advocacy discourse, this video has a particular structure. What is the correct order in which the points appear?
1 1 Specific projects fostering intercultural dialogue.
2 2 Reasons why intercultural dialogue is needed.
3 3 Cultural diversity as the main topic.
4 4 Recap of the key message.
5 5 Reasons why cultural diversity is important.
Please place the points in the right order.

This video has a structure that is often found in advocacy campaigns:

  1. What the issue is.
  2. Why this issue is important.
  3. What the solution is.
  4. Specific examples of action that lead to the solution.
  5. Recap / conclusion with a positive message for change.

Intercultural dialogue in Finland

Here is a striking percentage from UNESCO's 2022 We need to talk: Measuring intercultural dialogue for peace and inclusion:

89 %
of all current conflicts are occuring in countries with low intercultural dialogue

One of the cases that UNESCO presents as an example of success at improving intercultural dialogue is Finland. Read the following text to find out how it was done.

“Finnish society has experienced rapid cultural changes in recent decades following an increase in immigration which has necessitated the adaptation of social policy towards the integration and protection of minorities. Finland’s strong public institutions, namely its universal education system, have facilitated effective intercultural dialogue in broadening the avenues for immigrants and traditional minorities to participate in society. The development of Social Cohesion and Skills and Values primarily through education has sought to instil a sense of belonging for all students, in particular for students with different linguistic, religious and ethnic backgrounds.”

UNESCO & Institute for Economics and Peace (2022). We need to talk: Measuring intercultural dialogue for peace and inclusion. UNESCO.

Finland’s new education policies were designed not only for the new minorities coming from abroad, but also for the minorities who had long been living in Finland.
True
False
Please make your selection.
Yes, Finland’s success is based on improving intercultural dialogue involving all minorities.
The key to the new education policies was to make minorities adapt to Finnish culture.
True
False
Please make your selection.
It is the opposite. The key was to allow students to be themselves and help them participate in Finnish society no matter what their culture is.
It is because Finland has an educational system that allows every child to go to school that the policies were successful.
True
False
Please make your selection.
Yes, access to education is ‘universal’ in Finland, meaning that all children have access to it, regardless of wealth or background.

06Recap and Glossary

Key Points

  1. The norms, values, beliefs, and practices that shape the way we interact with others come from various sources and are acquired in various ways.
  2. Some of them are internalised as we grow up in a community, while others are chosen throughout life depending on personality, preferences, and group affinities.
  3. Each individual’s or group’s frame of reference is ultimately defined by a unique combination of personal, local, national, and global factors.
  4. No culture or frame of reference is better than others. They are all simply different. Hence the need for ethnorelativism.
  5. Intercultural communication is threatened by ethnocentrism, assumptions, prejudice, and stereotypes.
  6. This is especially true when people with different communication styles interact (low-context and high-context cultures, aspects of verbal and non-verbal communication).
  7. Successful intercultural communication is fostered by open-mindedness, empathy, listening, solidarity, and respect, as well as by a range of intercultural skills that can be developed.
  8. There are many ways of contributing to intercultural dialogue in the world today, as illustrated by all the projects developed at every level.
  9. Successful intercultural dialogue is essential in the world today, because it helps transform cultural diversity into a positive force for development and because it is one of the keys to living together in peace and harmony.

Glossary

The following definitions are adapted from the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.

  1. Advocacy Generally speaking, public support that somebody gives to an idea, a course of action or a belief; more specifically, also support, advice and help given to people, often with special needs or aims, who are unable to speak for themselves.
  2. Assumptions A feeling that something will be true or that something will happen, although there is no proof.
  3. Beliefs A strong feeling that something/somebody exists or is true.
  4. Bias A strong feeling in favour of or against one group of people, often not based on fair judgement.
  5. Cultural differences The ways in which cultures are not the same in their norms, values, beliefs, and practices. 
  6. Culture A set of norms, values, beliefs, and practices that determine how people organise their lives together as communities, nations, and any other form of group.
  7. Connectedness A feeling that you have a link with somebody/something or are part of a group.
  8. Dialogue A formal discussion between two groups or countries, especially when they are trying to solve a problem or end a disagreement.
  9. Discrimination The practice of treating somebody or a particular group in society less fairly than others.
  10. Diversity The practice or quality of including or involving people from a range of different social and ethnic backgrounds and of different genders, religions, etc.
  11. Ethnocentrism Behaviour or beliefs that favour one’s own culture as superior and judge other cultures against it as inferior or irrelevant. 
  12. Ethnorelativism Behaviour or belief based on the knowledge that no culture is superior to any other.
  13. Frame of reference A particular set of norms, values, beliefs, ideas or experiences in relation to which something is measured or judged. 
  14. High-/ low-context A spectrum of attitudes to communication, from most direct and explicit to most indirect and implicit. 
  15. Identity Who or what someone is. 
  16. Internalisation The act of making a feeling, an attitude or a belief part of the way you think and behave.
  17. Norms The standards of behaviour that people consider to be acceptable and appropriate in social situations.
  18. Perspective A particular attitude towards something; a way of thinking about something.
  19. Practices A way of doing something that is the usual or expected way in a particular organisation or situation.
  20. Prejudice An unreasonable dislike of a person, group, custom, etc., especially when it is based on race, religion, sex, etc.
  21. Reframe To change the way in which you think about a situation; to change your frame of reference. 
  22. Social structures All of the accepted ways in which relationships are organised in a society. 
  23. Socialisation The process by which somebody, especially a child, learns to behave in a way that is acceptable in their society. 
  24. Stereotype A fixed idea or image that many people have of a particular type of person or thing, but which is often not true in reality and may cause hurt and offence. 
  25. Values Beliefs about what is right and wrong and what is important in life.

Key Phrases for Intercultural Dialogue Advocacy

Introducing one issue or more
  • One of the most pressing / urgent / crucial intercultural issues facing [country / group name] today is …
  • [Country / group name] faces major intercultural challenges today, including …
Explaining why the issue is important
  • The reasons why [the issue] matters are clear / diverse / …
  • [The issue] is of grave concern because / as / due to / owing to …
Concessions to introduce remaining issues
  1. Despite intercultural efforts, …
  2. Although intercultural efforts have been made, …
Presenting solutions
  1. The key to better intercultural dialogue is …
  2. Intercultural dialogue and understanding can be improved by … (+verb-ing)

07Self-Reflection Execise

Questions

Now that you know more about intercultural communication and its stakes, here are some questions and suggestions to go further.

  1. What are the main norms, values, beliefs, and practices that shape your frame of reference? How did you acquire them?
  2. What would you say that defines your identity (who you are) more than anything else? (E.g.: your nationality, your gender, your likes and dislikes…) And how does that affect the way you relate to other people?
  3. Can you think of one or more moments in your life when your assumptions or beliefs were challenged? What was the situation? What made you reconsider your frame of reference? Did this experience change you? Why and how, or why not?
  4. Can you think of one or more intercultural experiences in your life that confronted you with a different frame of reference than yours? How did you feel? How did you react? Was the interaction successful? To what extent and why?
  5. What can you do in your everyday life to foster positive intercultural dialogue?

Activities

  1. Take the 'What's your cultural profile' online test. Created by Professor Erin Meyer, this online tool allows you to discover your own profile for various cultural dimensions, and to compare it with other cultures, including your home culture.

    What's your cultural profile
  2. Find out what events your university is planning with international students and attend them to interact with students from other countries on campus.
  3. Develop your intercultural competence by participating in a multicultural event organised in the community. There are many opportunities on social media, including language and cultural exchange groups.
  4. Organise a story circle. Find three to five people with a different cultural background and lead a story circle session based on the following UNESCO guide. You can write about the session and what happened, take pictures, and even make a video about it.

    UNESCO Guide
  5. Using the key words and phrases from the recap, as well as the structure from video 4, write a short script for a video that would raise public awareness about an intercultural issue in your home country, city, or community.
  6. Develop your intercultural competence by learning on your own with the resources presented in the following reference list.

08References

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