Global Citizenship
Media and
Technology

 
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00Introduction

Welcome to the Media and Technology module.

It focuses on the characteristics, uses, and impacts of digital media and technology.

In this module you will more specifically learn about the consequences of the rise of digital media and technology on political and social interactions, as well as on the way we interact with information.

You will engage in activities that will allow you to understand the spread of false information online and to avoid it critically. You will also examine solutions for better digital equality, digital safety, and digital literacy.

The module features self-reflection and references sections at the end, to help you go further, learn more about yourself, and take action to foster positive digital interactions.

01Digital Media Characteristics

Let’s begin with a brief introduction to digital media.

02Digital Inequality

Digital Inequality

Digital media and technology have become a central part of life and the future is likely to be increasingly digital. Who has access to digital technology is therefore a key question today.

The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines inequality as

“the unfair difference between groups of people in society, when some have more wealth, status or opportunities than others.”

Digital inequality therefore refers to differences in opportunities concerning access to digital technology.

Take a look at the following chart and complete the activity to draw conclusions regarding digital inequality in the world today.

The chart is from The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which is the United Nations’ specialised agency for information and communication technologies (ICTs).

Socio-economic Development

Percentage of Individuals Using the Internet by Region, 2022

Notes:
CIS: Commonwealth of Independent States (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and other former USSR members)
LDCs: Least developed countries

Adapted from The International Telecommunication Union, "Facts and Figures 2022."

What region has the lowest rate of internet users in the world?
Please make your selection.
Correct. 60% of Africa’s population do not have access to the internet.
Does a person’s socio-economic background determine their access to digital technology?
Please make your selection.
Correct. The chart shows that the lower the income, the lower the access to the internet.

Other Factors

In addition to socio-economic development, there are two other important factors that play a role in digital inequality, according to the ITU’s 2022 report: gender and age.

Study the following charts answer the questions to find out more.

Global Gender Gap

Percentage of individuals using the Internet in 2022

 

Source: ITU, Facts and Figures 2022
* ITU-D regions


What are the two regions in the world where the digital gender gap is the widest?
Please make your selection.
Correct. Africa and the Arab States have the widest digital gender gaps, reflecting the condition of women in those two regions.

Digital Generation Gap

Percentage of individuals using the Internet in 2022

 
Notes:
: Youth (15-24 years old)
: Rest of the population

Source: ITU, Facts and Figures 2022
ITU-D regions


What are the two regions in the world where the digital age gap is the widest?
Please make your selection.
Correct. Africa has the widest digital age gap with 19 points, and the Americas have the second with 13 points, just ahead of the Arab States, which are close with a 12-point gap.

Key Point

"Without decisive action, the digital divide will become the new face of inequality."

UN Deputy Secretary-General Amina Mohammed,
Remarks at the General Assembly high-level thematic debate
on digital cooperation and connectivity, April 27, 2021.
Source: https://press.un.org/en/2021/dsgsm1579.doc.htm

What does this mean? It means that all types of inequalities in the world will be made worse by differences in access to digital technology if nothing is done to close the digital gap.

03Interactions

Interactions

For those who are fortunate enough to have access to it, digital technology profoundly affects key interactions, especially when it comes to power, influence, and identity. Let’s take a look at some of these interactions to see how digital media and technology have redefined them.

Government and Digital Media

The relationship between a government and its citizens is increasingly taking place online. Take a look at the following text and complete the activity to find out more:

Governments are witnessing how social media empower individuals, as well as traditional and newly-formed interest groups to influence political agendas and policy processes. Most prominent topics discussed on social media include elections and political campaigns, disaster and emergency situations, political unrest. But social media are more than just a global place for discussions, they have become a vehicle for the organisation of collective action. […]

Social media have the potential to make policy processes more inclusive and thereby re-build some confidence between governments and citizens. But there are no “one size fits all” approaches and government strategies need to seriously consider context and demand factors to be effective. […]

Social media drive innovation in public service delivery and government operations. They amplify some of the “democratisation” effects of the Internet on public information and services; and they provide opportunities to deliver on expectations that are not met by traditional online government services. But institutions need to be aware of risks, for instance in terms of protection of privacy, quality of information and public perception.

Mickoleit, A. (2014). Social media use by governments: A policy primer to discuss trends,
identify policy opportunities and guide decision makers.
OECD Working Papers on Public Governance, (26). OECD Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1787/5jxrcmghmk0s-en
Is the relationship presented in the text a one-way relationship in which government has all the power, or a two-way relationship in which citizens also have power thanks to social media?
One-way
Two-way
Please make your selection.
Correct. Social media give some power to citizens as well and allow them to become politically active online.
Can social media increase citizens’ trust in government if used well?
Yes
No
Please make your selection.
Correct. The inclusive nature of social media can help more citizens to feel connected and empowered if government uses social media strategically.

Key Point

The development of social media has redefined the relationship between government and citizens, giving people more opportunities to act and participate in civic life through digital technology.

This new power allows for action not just locally or nationally, but also across borders, as the following phenomenon illustrates.

Digital Humanitarianism

“Digital humanitarianism is humanitarian intervention conducted at a distance, sometimes without physical presence on the ground, through digital tools and often in an online, collaborative manner including citizen participation. It is technically a consequence of the rapid spread of mobile phones, internet connectivity, social media, and geographical information systems that enable a large number of individuals to effectively collaborate online. When a major crisis occurs, affected populations and concerned organisations turn to their mobile phones or to the internet to seek and to share information on the crisis. Digital humanitarianism developed as a way to describe the activity of volunteers and organisations who apply digital tools to capture this flow of online information, organise it, locate it, and verify its content. The collection and mapping of social media messages after the Haiti earthquake in 2010 is claimed to be the birth of digital humanitarian activity (Meier 2015).”

Aarvik, P. (2020). Digital humanitarianism. In Humanitarianism. Brill.
https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004431140_021

Work and Digital Technology

Next, let’s see how digital technology affects professional interactions. Watch the video and then answer the questions to find out more.

Source: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/how-the-digitization-of-work-impacts-us-all
What does digital technology enable younger people to ask for when they look for work now?
Please make your selection.
Please make your selection.
According to the video, what is the key skill that workers now need on the labour market and that millennials tend to have naturally thanks to their use of social media?
Please make your selection.

Key Point

Just as for government and citizens, digital media and technology have changed power relationships between employers and employees on the labour market. Both now have much more freedom and flexibility in working arrangements, which can bring great benefits, but also significant dangers, for workers as well as for companies.

Advertising and Digital Technology

Another area in which digital media and technology have transformed interactions is advertising. What we see today is an extension of practices that were shaped by what is known as the attention economy.

Key Principle

As Herbert Simon (1971) suggested, the more information there is, the less attention each piece of information can get. Attention therefore becomes a valuable resource. Hence the attention economy, in which companies or brands compete to get the attention of individuals. Attention being a limited resource, advertisers have to be creative to catch and hold individuals’ attention long enough to create an interest and a desire in the product or service they are advertising.
Davenport, T. & Beck, C. (2001). The attention economy: Understanding the new currency of business. Harvard Business Press.

What does this mean for the digital world and for social media in particular? Let’s go through some key questions to find out.

How do social media companies make most of their revenue?
Please make your selection.
How do social media companies make sure users stay on their platforms as long as possible and therefore see more ads?
Please make your selection.
To what extent can users block general and microtargeted ads online?
Please make your selection.

Key Point

In the digital media world, users’ attention is one of the most valuable resources. There is constant competition to catch and hold it, which profoundly affects the way in which media content is presented, to the extent that some platforms are deliberately designed to be addictive.

The attention economy does not only concern brands and advertisers, but also individuals, as “celebrity” becomes a major social goal that digital media enable more people to reach at various levels.

The Digital Self

Digital media and technology play an increasingly important role in the development of identity and in the way in which individuals interact with others, which affects the nature of online interactions as well as the content that is shared.

As Franck (2019) argues, being seen and heard, even being famous, are major goals in today’s society, and digital media make it not only possible to be famous, but also to make money by being famous.

“The attention of others is the most irresistible of drugs. To receive it outshines receiving any other kind of income. This is why glory surpasses power, and why wealth is overshadowed by celebrity.”

The economy of attention

And this, according to Franck, is where the attention economy comes in:

“The mass media exchange information and entertainment for attention, which is in turn monetised via advertising. The field of celebrity is a ‘vanity fair’ functioning as a stock exchange of attention capital – measured in circulation and viewing figures, ratings, likes, visits and so on – a form of capital that earns interest and generates additional income for those in its proximity.”

The economy of attention

More generally speaking, a tendency to share content to seek validation from others can be found on social media, especially in a context of identity development. As Manago (2015) puts it:

“Social networking sites usher in new practices and meanings for interpersonal relatedness and personal autonomy that adolescents and emerging adults must negotiate during the process of exploration and commitment in identity formation. Customised sociality and self-expression are cultural practices that manifest an emphasis on autonomy during identity development; however ironically, evidence suggests that social networking sites may also foster a reliance on others to validate one's identity claims and self-worth.”

Manago, A. M. (2015). Identity development in the digital age: The case of social networking sites.
In K. C. McLean & M. Syed (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of identity development, pp.508–524. Oxford University Press.

Key Point

Individuals often participate in the attention economy on digital media for validation, money, or both. This illustrates the increasingly central role of digital media technology in the construction of an identity, a sense of self and community.

This also means that digital media content is not necessarily an end in itself. The content is not always the goal. Other people’s attention is often the goal. Reaching that goal can empower individuals to find and validate their identity, but it can also lead to negative feelings when they constantly compare their lives with the lives of others.

So how has digital media technology redefined key interactions?

In politics, at work, and in society, digital technology clearly allows power to be redistributed, giving citizens, workers, and individuals more opportunities and ways to participate, to define their action, and to define themselves. This applies to local and national communities, as well as global communities.

The attention economy, however, results in a constant competition for attention that can lead to ways of sharing information in which the content itself is only a means to an end.

As a result, the very nature of digital information is often influenced.

04Information Disorder

Here is a short video about the different types of false information online and their social consequences:

05Solutions and Advocacy

Solutions

There are three main elements that should be checked whenever you are confronted with the creation or consumption of information online, especially when it can have an impact on your opinions or those of others.

Check the Facts

This is the most important solution whenever possible. To fact-check effectively, you first need to establish the verifiability of the statements.

quote

Key Word

Verifiability: The degree to which a statement can be checked to be confirmed as true or accurate.

Some statements are 100% verifiable. They are based on facts that can easily be verified. Others are 0% verifiable. They are too general, vague, or personal to be checked. Then there are the statements in between, which could be checked, but not easily.

Verifiability Practice

Read the following text by Mark Zuckerberg, Facebook / Meta CEO, and tap the correct answer for each statement.

Facebook is an idealistic and optimistic company. For most of our existence, we focused on all the good that connecting people can bring.
100% verifiable
0% verifiable
In Between
As Facebook has grown, people everywhere have gotten a powerful new tool to stay connected to the people they love, make their voices heard, and build communities and businesses. Just recently, we’ve seen the #metoo movement and the March for Our Lives, organised, at least in part, on Facebook.
100% verifiable
0% verifiable
In Between
After Hurricane Harvey, people raised more than $20 million for relief. And more than 70 million small businesses now use Facebook to grow and create jobs.
100% verifiable
0% verifiable
In Between
Adapted from Ireton, C. & Posetti, J. (2018). Journalism, fake news & disinformation: Handbook for journalism education and training, pp.95-96. UNESCO.

Check the Source

In many situations today, the first reports of an event are photos or videos taken in the moment, and then shared online. In other situations, they can take other forms, including text, statistics, and graphic data. It is always essential to verify the origin and context of those reports to make sure they can be trusted.

What if the source is anonymous? Is it a good sign or a bad sign regarding the reliability of the information?
Please make your selection.
Yes, it is definitely a bad sign.
Sometimes the source is a website. In this case, always check the URL. Can you find the fake websites in the following list?
Please make your selection.
Correct. The “.co” URLs are hosted on Columbian websites. It is very easy to miss when you are not really looking and when the website imitates the real one very well. There are many other fake websites, so when you land on a site after clicking a link, do check if it is the legitimate one.

Source Evaluation

When the source is a person, using an online search to check if they are reliable is quick and easy. In addition, you should check the following elements to evaluate how reliable the source is. Check on each to reveal an explanation.

Proximity Expertise Rigour Transparency Record Motivation

Proximity

How close is the source to the information? If statistics are used, is the source from the organisation that produced them, for instance?

Expertise

What qualifications does the source have to make their statements? Are they an expert in the field?

Rigour

How was the evidence collected? Is there enough in terms of quality, quantity? Was the process or the method trustworthy?

Transparency

Does the source give any way to check the information?

Record

Is there anything that the source has published or posted in the past that can make it trustworthy?

Motivation

Why is the source sharing the information? Is there a conflict of interest? Does the source have something to gain or lose by sharing the information?
Adapted from Ireton, C. & Posetti, J. (2018). Journalism, fake news & disinformation: Handbook for journalism education and training, pp.96-97. UNESCO.
Sometimes the information is just based on one picture. Do you know what a “reverse image search is”?
Please make your selection.
Then here is a definition: A reverse image search is a type of online search tool in which you paste an image to check if other websites or data bases already contain that image. With tools like Google Reverse Image Search, TinEye, or RevEye, it is possible to check if an image has been taken out of one context and used in another. This can help you find the true source of an image.
Good, then you know that using Google Reverse Image Search, TinEye, or RevEye, it is possible to check if an image has been re-used from a different context or source.

Check Yourself

Sometimes we are our own enemies when it comes to interacting with content online. A common pitfall is truthiness.

quote

Key Word

Truthiness: The quality of a statement based on the belief that it is true because we want it to be true or because we feel it must be true.

This is often made worse online because some content is designed to cause a strong emotional reaction and make people forget to think critically. So think before you click, and pause before you share.

Generally speaking, interacting with online content requires the same critical thinking skills that any other media require, so make sure yours are as sharp as they can be.

TIP: Section 7 suggests ways to improve your critical thinking skills.

Here are two more tips to check that you are bring your best digital self:

Idea
Check The Other Side:
Deliberately consulting or subscribing to sites, accounts, or channels that support opinions that are different from yours is a great way of seeing all the possible sides of an issue. Even if you disagree, you will understand other people’s positions better.
Idea
Confuse Algorithms:
Another advantage of checking the other side is that algorithms will not isolate you into a small filter bubble. If you actively search for different topics, points of view, and sources, your feed will be more diverse than if you always simply follow the recommendations made by the algorithm.

Digital Inequality

Here is an example of video campaign to help reduce digital inequality by the Canadian charity BC Technology for Learning Society. In only one minute, see how the video manages to:

  1. Define the problem.
  2. Present the causes of the problem.
  3. Explain why solving the problem is important.
  4. Present a solution.
  5. Call the viewer to help.

Also pay attention to the way the video appeals to:

  1. Logos (logic)
  2. Pathos (emotion) and morality
  3. Ethos (credibility)

All these elements make it a good example of advocacy video.

Let’s watch.

Digital Safety

Digital safety refers to all the precautions that can be taken to make sure that no harm comes from the use of digital media technology.

Here is a good example of print awareness campaign by the Data Security Council of India (DSCI) designed to protect women online. Take a close look at how the brochure / poster presents:

  1. A strong and clear message.
  2. Explanations of possible problems.
  3. Specific advice.
  4. Reasons why the advice should be followed.
  5. Actions to take in case of trouble.

Digital Media Literacy

Digital literacy refers to the ability to use information technology and navigate the online world. While it may seem that everyone can use a smartphone or computer and do everything they need online, it is far from the case.

Here is a good example of video campaign by UNESCO. Pay attention to how the video:

  1. Sets the context.
  2. Explains the stakes.
  3. Presents the solution.
  4. Explains why the solution is right.
  5. Presents a way to help.
  6. Calls the viewer to action.

This is another example of effective advocacy structure, so let’s watch and see how it works.

Video

06Recap and Glossary

Key Points

  1. Digital media and technology have profoundly transformed nearly every aspect of our lives, especially the ways in which we interact with each other and with information.
  2. The characteristics of digital media are their interactivity, multimodality, dynamic and updatable content, multi-way data sharing model in which non-professionals can participate, low level of gate-keeping, and digital convergence.
  3. Digital technology has changed power relationships, empowering individuals to participate in new ways and to define their own modes of civic and professional action, as well as their identities.
  4. However, one third of humanity is excluded from the digital world today, which makes the digital divide one of the main factors of inequality on the planet.
  5. The attention economy drives a lot of interactions online, as attention has become one of the most valuable resources in the information age. Online content is therefore often just a means to get attention, rather than an end in itself.
  6. Information disorder refers to the spread of false information online. It can be motivated by the attention economy, strong beliefs, money, and by power and influence on public opinion.
  7. Our cognitive biases, such as confirmation bias, are amplified by algorithms and tend to isolate us in filter bubbles that exclude any content or people with an opinion or belief that is different from the ones we already have.
  8. Filter bubbles increase social division and polarisation, leading to tensions among individuals and groups.
  9. The solutions to information disorder and filter bubbles include fact-checking, source-checking, and self-checking, all of which rely on critical thinking skills and the willingness to listen to other points of view.
  10. Advocacy is particularly needed to reduce digital inequality, and to increase digital safety and literacy.

Glossary

Whenever possible, the following definitions are adapted from the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.

  1. Algorithm A set of rules that is followed by a search engine or platform to present relevant results to the user.
  2. Attention economy The context in which individual attention has become a valuable resource, for which there is a competition.
  3. Cognitive bias A logical thinking mistake leading to misinterpret information and make irrational decisions.
  4. Clickbait Material put on the internet in order to attract attention and encourage visitors to click on a link to a particular web page.
  5. Deepfake A video of a person in which their appearance has been digitally altered so that they look like somebody else.
  6. Digital convergence The ability for one electronic device to present all types of formats (text, audio, image, video).
  7. Digital divide The gap between people who have access to digital technology and those who do not.
  8. Disinformation False information that is deliberately shared to cause harm to an individual or a group by giving people the wrong ideas. False information that is deliberately shared to cause harm to an individual or a group by giving people the wrong ideas.
  9. Fake news False reports of events, written and read on websites, and made to look like official news.
  10. Filter bubble An online environment in which the only content and people that are included share the user’s opinions and beliefs.
  11. Gate-keeper A person, system, etc. that decides whether somebody or something will be allowed to share information and how.
  12. Imposter content Any content that is made to look like it comes from a specific source, when it does not.
  13. Information disorder The creation and / or sharing of false information, with or without the intention to cause harm.
  14. Malinformation Information that is true, or has a basis in truth, and is shared with the intention to cause harm to an individual or a group.
  15. Microtargeting The practice of sending personalised online ads to individuals based on the data that reveals their needs and wants.
  16. Misinformation Information that is false and is shared by people who mistakenly believe it is true.
  17. Multimodality The ability to feature all types of formats (text, audio, image, video) in the same electronic document.
  18. Polarisation The separation of people into groups with strongly opposed opinions.
  19. Post-truth Relating to circumstances in which people respond more to feelings and beliefs than to facts and reality, resulting in distorted individual versions of the truth.
  20. Trolling The practice of writing false or offensive message online to make other people angry.
  21. Truthiness The quality of a statement based on the belief that it is true because we want it to be true or because we feel it must be true.
  22. Verifiability The quality of information that can be checked to show whether it is true or accurate.
  23. Virality The condition of being shared very quickly by increasingly large numbers of people.

07Self-Reflection

Now that you know more about digital media and technology, here are some questions and suggestions to go further.

Questions

  1. How do you get your news and how do you make sure that it is reliable? What can you do to improve the quality and diversity of your news sources?
  2. What social media platforms do you use the most and why? Do you share a lot of content on these platforms? Why or why not? Can you easily stop looking at social media content or are you constantly checking your feeds? How does this content affect the way you feel?
  3. Do you think we live in a world where truth has become irrelevant or even impossible? Why or why not? If objective truth still matters, how can it be defended?
  4. What do you think is the future of the digital world? Virtual reality? Augmented reality? Artificial intelligence? How will this affect life, work, and relationships? What should you do to be ready for it?
  5. Do you know individuals or groups who find it difficult to have access to digital media technology? If yes, what can you do to help them?

Activities

  1. Open your favourite social media app and critically study the first three posts you see. What are their characteristics? Who posted them and what was their motivation?
  2. Explore fact-checking sites and practices with the following resources, then look for more:

    The International Fact-Checking Network’s code of principles
    How to fact-check a claim in 10 steps
    PolitiFact
    Fact-checking at the Poynter Institute
    Factcheck.org
  3. Develop your critical thinking skills with these resources from the Independent Learning Centre:

    Critical Thinking
  4. Develop your knowledge of cognitive biases. The following website is a good starting point:

    The Effect of Cognitive Bias in Decision-Making
  5. Watch Eli Pariser’s TED Talk on filter bubbles (9 minutes):

    Beware online "filter bubbles"
  6. Visit the EAVI (the European Association for Viewers Interests) website. It is “an  international non-profit organisation registered in Brussels which advocates media literacy and full citizenship. EAVI supports the adoption of initiatives that enable citizens to read, write and participate in public life through the media.” For example, it features a “secret agent’s guide to protecting your phone privacy”:

    The Secret Agent’s Guide to Protecting your Phone Privacy

08References

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